// chronicle
A chronological journey through Palestinian history, from ancient Canaan to the present day.
The earliest known inhabitants of Palestine were the Canaanites, a Semitic-speaking people who established a network of city-states across the region as early as the 4th millennium BCE. The Canaanites developed advanced urban civilizations, with cities like Jericho — one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world — and Megiddo. They traded extensively with Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Aegean world. The name 'Palestine' itself derives from 'Philistia,' the Greek term for the land of the Philistines, who settled along the coastal plain around 1200 BCE. Canaanite culture, language, and religion profoundly influenced all subsequent civilizations in the region, leaving an enduring legacy in the land now known as Palestine.
Gaza has been continuously inhabited for over 3,500 years. It was a key Canaanite city and later an important Philistine settlement. Its strategic location on the Via Maris — the ancient trade route connecting Egypt to the Levant — made it a vital commercial hub for centuries. The city was conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE after a five-month siege, and later became a center of Hellenistic and Roman trade. Under Byzantine rule, Gaza was known for its schools of rhetoric and philosophy. The city's name itself appears in the Amarna letters of the 14th century BCE, attesting to its ancient significance.
The earliest known settlement in the Jerusalem area dates back to the Chalcolithic period (c. 4500–3500 BCE). By the early Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE), Canaanite tribes had established a fortified settlement on the Ophel hill, near the Gihon Spring — the city's primary water source. The Canaanite city, known as Urusalim in ancient Egyptian texts (c. 1900 BCE), was a vassal of Egypt during the Late Bronze Age. The Jebusites, a Canaanite tribe, controlled the city by the 14th century BCE. The city's strategic location in the Judean Hills, connecting trade routes between the Mediterranean and the Arabian Desert, made it a significant regional center long before it became the focus of biblical narratives.
During the Canaanite period, Jericho was a prosperous city-state. The biblical account of the Battle of Jericho — in which the Israelite leader Joshua allegedly caused the city's walls to collapse — has been a subject of archaeological debate. Most scholars believe the biblical narrative was written centuries after the events it describes and is not historically accurate. Archaeological excavations, including those by Kathleen Kenyon in the 1950s, found that Jericho's famous walls collapsed at different times than the biblical account suggests, with some destructions dating to around 1550 BCE — far earlier than the proposed Israelite conquest.
Jericho flourished during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. King Herod the Great built a magnificent winter palace complex at Tulul Abu al-Alayiq, complete with swimming pools, gardens, and reception halls. The city was known for its date palms and balsam groves, which produced highly prized perfumes. Jericho was destroyed during the First Jewish-Roman War (66–73 CE) but was rebuilt as a Roman city. The historian Josephus described Jericho as 'the most fertile part of the country.' The city's thermal springs and subtropical climate made it a popular winter resort for Jerusalem's elite.
The First Temple was destroyed in 586 BCE when the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II conquered Jerusalem and exiled much of the Judean elite to Babylon. The Babylonian exile ended in 539 BCE when Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon and allowed the Jews to return and rebuild the Temple, completed in 515 BCE. Jerusalem experienced successive periods of Persian, Hellenistic (under Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies and Seleucids), and Hasmonean rule. The Roman period began in 63 BCE when Pompey intervened in a Hasmonean civil war. Herod the Great (37–4 BCE) massively expanded the Second Temple and the city. The Jewish Great Revolt (66–70 CE) ended with the Roman destruction of the Second Temple and much of the city under Titus. The Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) led to the complete razing of Jerusalem and the establishment of the Roman colony Aelia Capitolina.
Roman rule began in 63 BCE when Pompey the Great annexed the region into the Roman Republic. The period witnessed the Jewish-Roman wars, including the Great Revolt (66–70 CE) which culminated in the destruction of the Second Temple, and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE), after which Emperor Hadrian renamed the province Syria Palaestina and built Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem. Under Byzantine Christian rule from the 4th century, Palestine became a major center of Christian pilgrimage, with the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and hundreds of monastic complexes across the region. The Byzantine period saw a flourishing of religious architecture, mosaic art, and theological scholarship that shaped both Eastern and Western Christianity.
Jericho is widely considered the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world. Archaeological excavations at Tell es-Sultan reveal evidence of settlement dating back to the Natufian culture, with the first permanent structures appearing around 10,000 BCE. By 8,000 BCE, Jericho was a fortified town with a massive stone wall and a stone tower — among the earliest known fortifications in human history. The inhabitants of this prehistoric period built circular mud-brick houses and engaged in early agriculture, domesticating wheat and barley. The site provides crucial evidence of the Neolithic Revolution — humanity's transition from nomadic hunting to settled farming communities.
According to biblical tradition, King David captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites around 1000 BCE and made it the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel. His son Solomon is said to have built the First Temple on Mount Moriah, which became the central sanctuary of ancient Israelite religion. The biblical account describes a golden age of Israelite power, but archaeological evidence for the 10th century BCE United Monarchy remains limited and debated. What is clear is that Jerusalem's significance as a religious and political center grew substantially during this period. After Solomon's death, the city remained the capital of the southern Kingdom of Judah for the next three centuries.
Gaza came under Islamic rule in 635 CE and was administered by successive Muslim dynasties — Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk, and Ottoman. During the Mamluk period (1250–1516), Gaza flourished as a regional center, with the construction of the Great Mosque of Gaza (originally a Crusader church converted to a mosque), the Qasr al-Basha palace, and numerous public baths and markets. Under Ottoman rule (1517–1917), Gaza remained an important administrative center, although its economic significance gradually declined. The city was a crucial stop on the pilgrimage route to Mecca and hosted a diverse population of Muslims, Christians, and Jews.
In 636 CE, Muslim forces under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab decisively defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Yarmouk, bringing Palestine under Islamic rule. The conquest was remarkably swift, with local populations generally allowed to continue their religious practices under Islamic governance. Jerusalem surrendered peacefully in 638 CE, with Caliph Umar personally guaranteeing the safety of its Christian and Jewish inhabitants. Under Umayyad rule, the Islamic character of Palestine was permanently established with the construction of the Dome of the Rock (691 CE) and the Al-Aqsa Mosque (705 CE) on the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem, making the city the third holiest in Islam. Arabic gradually replaced Greek and Aramaic as the dominant language.
Jericho surrendered peacefully to Muslim forces under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab in the 7th century. Under Umayyad rule, the city area saw the construction of the Hisham's Palace complex (Khirbat al-Mafjar) — one of the most important early Islamic architectural sites in the region, with its stunning mosaics, intricate carvings, and elaborate bathhouse. The Abbasid, Fatimid, and Ayyubid periods saw Jericho maintain its agricultural importance, with extensive terraced farming and irrigation systems. During the Mamluk period, the village of Jericho was a sugar production center, with several sugar mills operating in the surrounding area.
In 638 CE, the Islamic Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab accepted the peaceful surrender of Jerusalem from the Byzantine Patriarch Sophronius. The 'Covenant of Umar' guaranteed the safety of the city's Christian population and their places of worship. Under Umayyad rule, Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan commissioned the construction of the Dome of the Rock (completed 691 CE) and his son Al-Walid I built the Al-Aqsa Mosque (completed 705 CE) on the Haram al-Sharif (Temple Mount), making Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam. The Abbasid period (750–969) saw continued development, though political power shifted to Baghdad. The Fatimid Caliphate (969–1099) ruled from Cairo, maintaining Jerusalem as an important religious center. The city flourished as a multi-faith spiritual hub, attracting Muslim, Christian, and Jewish pilgrims from across the known world.
In 1099, European Crusaders captured Jerusalem in a bloody siege, massacring thousands of Muslim and Jewish inhabitants and establishing the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Crusaders built massive fortifications, castles, and churches across Palestine, including the iconic Krak des Chevaliers. Muslim resistance was led by Salah ad-Din (Saladin), who united Muslim forces under the Ayyubid dynasty and recaptured Jerusalem in 1187 after the decisive Battle of Hattin. Unlike the Crusaders, Saladin showed remarkable clemency, allowing Christian inhabitants to leave peacefully. The Ayyubid period that followed saw the restoration of Islamic institutions, though Crusader presence persisted in coastal enclaves for another century.
After 88 years of Crusader rule (1099–1187), Salah ad-Din (Saladin) liberated Jerusalem following his decisive victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. Unlike the Crusaders' conquest, Saladin's entry was remarkably merciful — he allowed the Christian inhabitants to leave peacefully and protected the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Ayyubid dynasty restored the city's Islamic character, refortifying its walls and renewing religious institutions. Under the Mamluks (1250–1516), Jerusalem experienced a golden age of Islamic architecture. The Mamluks built dozens of madrasas, ribats (hostels for pilgrims), sabils (public fountains), and zawiyas (Sufi lodges) across the city. Many of these magnificent structures — with their distinctive ablaq (alternating colored stone) masonry and muqarnas (stalactite) vaulting — survive today, defining the character of Jerusalem's Old City.
The Mamluk Sultanate, based in Cairo, controlled Palestine from 1250 to 1516. The Mamluks — a military caste of slave soldiers, many of Turkic and Circassian origin — defeated both the remaining Crusader states and the Mongol Ilkhanate, securing Muslim rule over the Levant. Under Mamluk patronage, Palestine experienced a revival of Islamic architecture and scholarship. They built and restored numerous mosques, madrasas, and caravanserais, and fortified coastal cities against potential Crusader invasions. The period saw the development of a thriving trade network connecting Palestine to the broader Islamic world, and the flourishing of Arabic literature and historiography in cities like Jerusalem, Hebron, Gaza, and Nablus.
Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire for four centuries. The region was home to a diverse population of Muslims, Christians, and Jews.
Under Ottoman rule, Jerusalem was governed from Damascus as part of the Damascus Eyalet. The city's famous walls were rebuilt by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1535–1538 — the same walls that encircle the Old City to this day. The Ottomans maintained Jerusalem as a multi-religious city, with the millet system granting autonomy to Muslim, Christian, and Jewish religious communities. The city remained a provincial center, never rising to the prominence of Damascus or Cairo, but its spiritual significance drew pilgrims from around the world. By the late 19th century, the Ottoman Tanzimat reforms and increased European influence led to the expansion of the city beyond the Old City walls, creating new neighborhoods like the German Colony, the Greek Colony, and Mea Shearim. Jewish immigration, spurred by Zionism, began to change the city's demographic composition in the final decades of Ottoman rule.
The British government pledged support for 'the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people,' disregarding the rights of the indigenous Palestinian population, who constituted over 90% of the inhabitants.
During the British Mandate, Gaza's population grew significantly as trade and agriculture expanded. After the UN Partition Plan of 1947, Gaza became a focal point of the conflict. During the NakbaThe "catastrophe" of 1948, when over 750,000 Palestinians were expelled or fled during the establishment of Israel. of 1948, tens of thousands of Palestinian refugees from villages and towns across historic Palestine fled or were expelled into Gaza, overwhelming the city's resources. The 1948 Arab-Israeli war ended with the Gaza Strip under Egyptian military administration, separated from the West Bank and the rest of historic Palestine. The Gaza Strip's population tripled virtually overnight, creating a refugee crisis that persists to this day.
British forces under General Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem in December 1917. The British Mandate for Palestine, established in 1922, governed the city under conditions of increasing tension between the Arab Palestinian majority and the growing Jewish population. Jerusalem was at the center of Palestinian resistance — the 1929 Buraq uprising over access to the Western Wall, and the 1936–39 Arab Revolt had their epicenter in the city. The 1947 UN Partition Plan proposed placing Jerusalem under international control (corpus separatum). When the 1948 Arab-Israeli war broke out, the NakbaThe "catastrophe" of 1948, when over 750,000 Palestinians were expelled or fled during the establishment of Israel. — the mass displacement of the Palestinian people — included the ethnic cleansing of Palestinian neighborhoods in West Jerusalem. Over 30,000 Palestinian residents of West Jerusalem were expelled or fled, and entire neighborhoods like al-Maliha, Deir Yassin, and Lifta were depopulated. The city was divided between Israeli-controlled West Jerusalem and Jordanian-controlled East Jerusalem.
The 1936–39 Arab Revolt was a sustained Palestinian uprising against British colonial rule and the accelerating Zionist colonization of Palestine. Sparked by the killing of popular leader Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam by British forces in 1935, the revolt began with a six-month general strike in 1936, followed by armed insurrection. The British deployed over 20,000 troops — backed by aerial bombardment, house demolitions, and collective punishment — to crush the rebellion. The revolt resulted in the death of approximately 5,000 Palestinians, the execution of 108 fighters, and the destruction of over 2,000 homes. Despite its brutal suppression, the revolt forged a distinct Palestinian national consciousness and led to the British Peel Commission, which for the first time formally proposed partitioning Palestine.
On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 181, recommending the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international control. The plan allocated 56% of Palestine's land to the proposed Jewish state, despite Jews constituting only 33% of the population and owning less than 7% of the land. Palestinian Arabs and neighboring Arab states rejected the plan as fundamentally unjust and a violation of the principle of self-determination. The Jewish Agency accepted the plan, seeing it as a legal foundation for statehood. The passage of Resolution 181 triggered immediate violence and escalated into the NakbaThe "catastrophe" of 1948, when over 750,000 Palestinians were expelled or fled during the establishment of Israel. — the mass displacement of the Palestinian people. The UN partition plan remains a deeply contentious document at the heart of the conflict.
Over 750,000 Palestinians were forcibly expelled or fled from their homes. More than 530 villages were destroyed. This mass displacement created the largest and longest-standing refugee crisis in the world. Families still hold the keys to their ancestral homes — some now inside Israel — passing them down through generations as symbols of the right of return under UN Resolution 194.
After the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, Jericho came under Jordanian administration. The city absorbed a significant number of Palestinian refugees from the areas that became Israel. The 1948 refugees in Jericho and its surrounding camps — including Aqabat Jaber, the largest refugee camp in the West Bank — became a permanent feature of the city's demographics. During this period, Jericho remained a relatively quiet agricultural town, known for its bananas, citrus fruits, and vegetables. The 1949 Jericho Conference was a meeting of Palestinian leaders under Jordanian auspices that called for the unification of the West Bank with Jordan.
During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, over 750,000 Palestinians — more than half of the indigenous population — were forcibly expelled or fled from their homes in what is now Israel. The systematic destruction of over 530 Palestinian villages, towns, and neighborhoods accompanied this mass displacement. Families were rounded up at gunpoint, loaded onto trucks, and driven to the borders. Others fled under fire or in fear of massacres like Deir Yassin, where Zionist militias killed over 100 civilians. The NakbaThe "catastrophe" of 1948, when over 750,000 Palestinians were expelled or fled during the establishment of Israel. created what remains the world's largest and most enduring refugee crisis. UN Resolution 194 affirms the right of these refugees to return to their homes.
The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWAUN Relief and Works Agency — provides education, health, and aid to Palestinian refugees.) was established by UN General Assembly Resolution 302 in December 1949. UNRWAUN Relief and Works Agency — provides education, health, and aid to Palestinian refugees. was created to provide relief, education, healthcare, and social services to Palestinian refugees, pending a just and permanent solution to their plight. Unlike other UN refugee agencies, UNRWAUN Relief and Works Agency — provides education, health, and aid to Palestinian refugees. is the only one dedicated to a single refugee population and operates across five fields: Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. UNRWAUN Relief and Works Agency — provides education, health, and aid to Palestinian refugees. defines Palestine refugees as 'persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948, and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict.'
Israel captured the West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem, Golan Heights, and Sinai. This began the military occupation of Palestinian territories, in violation of UN Security Council Resolution 242, which calls for withdrawal from territories occupied in the conflict.
Israel captured the Gaza Strip from Egypt in the Six-Day War of 1967, beginning a military occupation that continues to this day. The occupation brought Israeli settlements, military checkpoints, land appropriation, and the systematic suppression of Palestinian political life. The First IntifadaArabic for "shaking off" — Palestinian uprisings against Israeli occupation (1987 and 2000). (1987–1993) began in Gaza, sparked by a traffic accident that became a symbol of Palestinian resistance. The uprising transformed Palestinian society and led directly to the Oslo Accords. Despite the promises of Oslo, the occupation of Gaza intensified, and settlements expanded during this period.
Israel captured Jericho during the 1967 Six-Day War. Unlike many other West Bank cities, Jericho did not see extensive Israeli settlement construction in its immediate vicinity, though settlements were built in the surrounding Jordan Valley. The city experienced the daily realities of military occupation — checkpoints, curfews, land confiscation, and restricted movement. Despite this, Jericho maintained its agricultural economy and became a popular destination for Palestinians due to its winter resort attractions, including the Jericho Casino and tourism related to its historical and religious sites.
The Six-Day War of 1967 caused a second massive wave of displacement. An estimated 300,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled from the West Bank and Gaza Strip, many for the second time in two decades. This event is known as the NaksaThe "setback" of 1967, when Israel occupied the remaining Palestinian territories (West Bank, Gaza, East Jerusalem). ('the setback'). The 1967 refugees joined their displaced relatives in overcrowded camps across Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon. UN Security Council Resolution 242, passed after the war, called for 'a just settlement of the refugee problem' but has never been implemented. The 1967 displacement also created a new category of 'displaced persons' who are not registered with UNRWAUN Relief and Works Agency — provides education, health, and aid to Palestinian refugees. from 1948 but who nonetheless lost their homes and lands.
In the Six-Day War of June 1967, Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan and immediately annexed it in violation of international law. The annexation was declared 'null and void' by UN Security Council Resolution 252 (1968), but Israel has maintained control ever since. In 1980, Israel passed the Basic Law declaring 'united Jerusalem' the capital of Israel, a move condemned by the UN Security Council as a violation of international law. The Israeli government has pursued systematic policies of Judaization — expanding Jewish neighborhoods and settlements in East Jerusalem (such as Ramat Shlomo, Gilo, and Har Homa), while severely restricting Palestinian building permits, revoking Palestinian residency rights, and demolishing Palestinian homes. The Haram al-Sharif/Al-Aqsa compound has been a flashpoint for tensions, with Israeli authorities repeatedly violating the historic status quo governing access to the site. Jerusalem remains at the heart of the Palestinian struggle for self-determination and represents one of the most intractable issues in the conflict. The city's Palestinian population — over 350,000 people — continues to face discrimination, displacement, and systematic efforts to erase their presence.
Palestinian refugee camps evolved from temporary tent encampments into permanent — though severely overcrowded and under-resourced — urban neighborhoods. Camps like Shatila, Sabra, Burj al-Barajneh in Lebanon; Jabalia, Beach, Khan Younis in Gaza; Balata, Jenin, Dheisheh in the West Bank; and Yarmouk in Syria became emblematic of the Palestinian refugee experience. Life in the camps is characterized by high population density, narrow alleyways, inadequate housing, high unemployment, and limited access to basic services. Despite these conditions, the camps became centers of political organizing, cultural preservation, and resistance — incubators of Palestinian identity and national consciousness. The 1982 Sabra and Shatila massacre in Lebanon, where Phalangist militias killed between 700 and 3,500 Palestinian civilians under Israeli control, remains a defining trauma of camp life.
On 13 November 1974, Yasser Arafat, Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, delivered a historic address to the United Nations General Assembly in New York. In his iconic speech, Arafat declared, 'I have come bearing an olive branch and a freedom fighter's gun. Do not let the olive branch fall from my hand.' On 22 November 1974, the General Assembly adopted Resolution 3237 (XXIX), granting the PLO observer status at the United Nations. This landmark diplomatic achievement recognized the PLO as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people on the world stage. The resolution paved the way for broader Palestinian participation in international forums and marked a turning point in the international legitimacy of the Palestinian national movement.
A widespread Palestinian uprising characterized by civil disobedience, general strikes, and grassroots resistance. The IntifadaArabic for "shaking off" — Palestinian uprisings against Israeli occupation (1987 and 2000). brought international attention to the Palestinian cause and led to the Oslo peace process.
The Oslo Accords established the Palestinian Authority and divided the West Bank into Areas A, B, and C. However, the peace process failed to deliver a viable Palestinian state, and Israeli settlement expansion accelerated dramatically.
The Oslo Accords (1993-1995) explicitly deferred the refugee issue to final status negotiations, which were never concluded. Article V of the Declaration of Principles states that 'the issue of refugees' will be addressed in permanent status negotiations. However, Israel has consistently refused to acknowledge the right of return for Palestinian refugees, despite UN Resolution 194 which states that 'refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbors should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date.' The right of return remains the central demand of the Palestinian refugee community and a core principle of the Palestinian national movement. For refugees, the right of return is not negotiable — it is a fundamental human right, not a political bargaining chip.
In 1994, Jericho became the first West Bank city to be transferred to Palestinian Authority control under the Oslo Accords. It was the site of the first Palestinian Authority prison and a symbol of the limited self-rule achieved through the peace process. However, the city remains encircled by Israeli checkpoints, settlements, and military zones. The ongoing occupation continues to restrict Jericho's development, despite its immense tourism potential as one of the world's most historically significant sites. The city's Hisham's Palace and Tell es-Sultan have been recognized as UNESCO World Heritage sites, offering a rare economic opportunity if the occupation were to end.
A period of intensified conflict following the collapse of the Camp David summit. Israeli military forces reoccupied Palestinian cities. Construction of the separation wall began shortly after.
Israel began constructing a 700+ km barrier through the West Bank. In 2004, the International Court of Justice issued an advisory opinion declaring the wall illegal under international law and calling for its dismantlement.
In 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew its military forces and evacuated approximately 8,000 settlers from the Gaza Strip. However, Israel maintained complete control over Gaza's airspace, territorial waters, borders, population registry, and economy. Following the 2006 Palestinian elections won by Hamas, Israel and Egypt imposed a strict land, air, and sea blockade on Gaza in 2007, declaring it a 'hostile entity.' The blockade has been described by the UN, Amnesty International, and other human rights organizations as a form of collective punishment and has devastated Gaza's economy. The blockade remains in place today, restricting the movement of people and goods into and out of the strip.
On 25 January 2006, Palestinians held democratic legislative elections, the second since the establishment of the Palestinian Authority. Hamas, running on a reform and anti-corruption platform, won a decisive majority with 74 of 132 seats, defeating the long-dominant Fatah party. The results, accepted by international observers as free and fair, were immediately rejected by Israel, the United States, and the European Union, who imposed severe economic sanctions and political isolation on the Hamas-led government. In response to the election outcome and subsequent factional tensions, Israel intensified its blockade of Gaza after Hamas took full control of the territory in June 2007. The siege — described by the UN as an 'open-air prison' — crippled Gaza's economy and has driven a deep internal Palestinian political division that remains unresolved.
A comprehensive land, air, and sea blockade was imposed on Gaza. The UN has described it as an 'open-air prison.' The blockade has devastated Gaza's economy and created one of the highest unemployment rates in the world.
Since the blockade began, Israel has launched repeated large-scale military operations against Gaza, including Operation Cast Lead (2008-09), Operation Pillar of Defense (2012), Operation Protective Edge (2014), and Operation Guardian of the Walls (2021). These operations have caused widespread destruction of homes, schools, hospitals, and infrastructure, and have killed tens of thousands of Palestinians, including thousands of children. International human rights organizations have documented potential war crimes in these attacks, including the targeting of civilian infrastructure and the use of prohibited weapons such as white phosphorus.
Palestinian refugees face different conditions depending on their host country. In Lebanon, Palestinians are denied basic civil rights — barred from most professions, prohibited from owning property, and excluded from public healthcare and education. In Jordan, the largest Palestinian refugee population enjoys citizenship rights but faces economic marginalization. In Syria, the civil war devastated Palestinian camps, with many refugees displaced for a third or fourth time. In the occupied Palestinian territory, refugees live under military occupation and blockade. Despite all this, the refugee community has produced extraordinary cultural, academic, and political figures. The right of return — symbolized by the key to a home that no longer exists — is passed down from generation to generation as an unrenounceable inheritance.
Weekly peaceful protests demanding the right of return for Palestinian refugees and an end to the blockade. UN investigations documented excessive use of force, with hundreds killed and thousands injured, including medics, journalists, and children.
In May 2021, forced eviction orders against six Palestinian families in the Sheikh Jarrah neighborhood of occupied East Jerusalem sparked mass protests across Palestine and worldwide. The evictions, pursued by Israeli settler organizations under a disputed 1970 law, became a powerful symbol of the broader Palestinian struggle for justice. Protests spread rapidly across all Palestinian communities — from Jerusalem and the West Bank to Gaza and Palestinian towns inside Israel — in what was widely called the 'Unity IntifadaArabic for "shaking off" — Palestinian uprisings against Israeli occupation (1987 and 2000)..' On 10 May, Hamas issued an ultimatum for Israel to withdraw from Sheikh Jarrah and the Al-Aqsa compound, and when unmet, launched rockets from Gaza. The ensuing 11-day Israeli military assault on Gaza killed over 250 Palestinians, including 66 children, and caused massive destruction. The uprising marked a historic moment of unified Palestinian action across all geographic and political divisions since 1948.
On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched an attack on southern Israel, killing approximately 1,139 people and taking around 250 hostages. Israel responded with an unprecedented military campaign of genocidal proportions against Gaza. By 2026, over 100,000 Palestinians had been killed, including more than 20,000 children. The Israeli campaign has systematically destroyed Gaza's universities, hospitals, bakeries, water treatment plants, and residential neighborhoods. The International Court of Justice found it 'plausible' that Israel's actions constitute genocide, and the International Criminal Court issued arrest warrants for Israeli leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity.
Despite immense hardship, the Palestinian people continue their struggle for freedom, justice, and self-determination through sumud — a philosophy of steadfast presence, cultural preservation, and international advocacy.